Blog 2: The Psychology of Volunteerism

Introduction
For over three decades, the factors that cause individuals to assist the needy have been of interest to psychologists. Early research conducted by psychologists studied helping in emergencies or other unexpected and short-term situations. More recently, research began to focus on helping in long-term situations (Stukas, Snyder, & Clary, 1999). Pre-arranged and ongoing commitment to providing service and support to others is known as volunteering (Baumeister & Bushman, 2008). The social psychologists E. Gil Clary and Mark Snyder are prominent researchers in the field of the psychology of volunteering. They have examined major theories of volunteerism, these being the functional theory and symbolic interactionism. They have also examined possible consequences of making volunteering a compulsory task. Clary and Snyder have identified the motivational functions that volunteering satisfies. Finally, they have conducted thorough research to help support their theories.

Theories on psychology of volunteerism
Clary et al. (1998) have recommended taking on a motivational perspective when addressing the questions of why individuals choose to volunteer and what factors support volunteerism over prolonged time periods. This is because such questions address the same concerns that are central to the motivational perspective; these being what are the processes that start, guide and maintain courses of action.

Clary et al. (1998) have selected the functional theory to deal with these motivational questions. This theory examines which personal and social purposes do a person's thoughts, emotions and actions serve (Clary et al., 1998, as cited in Snyder, 1993). According to Clary et al., this theory has helped to develop the understanding of the processes involved in attitudes, persuasion, personality, social cognition and social relationships. This theory thus has the potential to increase understanding of the psychology of volunteerism. The functional theory holds at least three key principles relating to volunteerism. An important assertion of this theory is that individuals choose to perform similar tasks in order to attend to different psychological functions (Clary et al., 1998; Clary & Snyder, 1999). An alternative explanation of this theory, one that helps to explain volunteerism more clearly, is that individuals will partake in the same volunteer task to satisfy different motives. Also, this theory states that major psychological events, especially choosing to volunteer, relies on individuals identifying to themselves what their motives are, then selecting situations that can meet these psychological needs (Clary & Snyder). The functional theory also encourages the consideration of a broad selection of personal and social motivations that promote volunteerism (Clary et al.).

The functional approach helps to explain the psychology of volunteerism, as does another theory used in social psychology, known as symbolic interactionism. This term was originally coined by the sociologist Herbert Blumer in 1937. According to one of the basic assertions of this perspective, individuals act toward things based on the meanings they link to those things (Blumer, 1986). This perspective is relevant to volunteerism and studies conducted by Clary et al. (1998) have helped to confirm this theory. The major influence that determines if an individual will or will not choose to undertake volunteer work is whether the work is linked to their own psychological motives.

The importance of volunteers to community welfare is generally well understood by society. Yet some institutions have made volunteerism a compulsory activity. For instance, some high schools in the United States include volunteer work as a requirement for student graduation. These institutions tend to hold the belief that mandating volunteerism will cause individuals to integrate prosocial values into their belief systems (Stukas, Snyder, & Clary, 1999). However, research has contradicted this viewpoint. If individuals recognize that they volunteer only when required and not of their own accord, they may be less likely to volunteer later on. Requiring individuals to volunteer may also give rise to psychological reactance. This is where placing controls on a person's freedom results in them attempting to re-establish their free will. This can be achieved by deviating from the required task and declining to continue performing it in future situations (Stukas, Snyder, & Clary).

The Volunteer Functions Inventory
While studying and analyzing the psychology of volunteerism, Clary and Snyder (1999) developed an implement designed to measure volunteers' motivations, known as the Volunteer Functions Inventory (VFI). The VFI offers six motivational functions that are satisfied by volunteerism. The first of these is the values function, that is, volunteering presents individuals with occasions on which they are able to express altruistic and charitable values, as well as compassionate feelings they hold for others. Consideration for other individuals is a common trait for those who choose to volunteer, sets volunteers apart from non-volunteers and helps to estimate whether volunteers will fully complete their duties (Clary et al., 1998). The second is the understanding function; that is, volunteers will often receive the opportunity to learn new skills or to understand more about the world in general. Through volunteering, an individual may be able to utilize knowledge and skills that are usually unused, and to develop new knowledge and skills through hands-on experience (Clary et al.). The third is the enhancement function, that is, individuals who are currently experiencing a positive mental state may choose to volunteer in order to enhance their positive mood. Also, by choosing to volunteer, individuals are able to undergo psychological growth, personal development and increases in self-esteem. This function involves a motivational procedure that focuses on developing positive attitudes relating to the ego (Clary et al.).

The fourth is the career function; that is, individuals may be able to gain experience in their chosen career by doing volunteer work in a similar field. This would increase their chances of being selected for their desired job later on (Clary et al., 1998). The fifth is the social function, which reflects individuals' motivations relating to social relationships. Volunteering may be socially rewarding in that it enables individuals to build new friendships or to strengthen current friendships. If an individual takes part in a task for which others have a particularly high opinion, this will probably reflect well on the individual (Clary et al.). The sixth is the protective function. It is derived from another principle of the functional theory, which states that individuals are motivated to ensure that their self-esteem levels are protected. This function involves a motivational procedure that focuses on eliminating negative attitudes relating to the ego. Volunteerism may assist this motivational procedure by reducing negative feelings an individual may be experiencing, such as guilt over appearing to be more fortunate than others are. Volunteering may also serve as a means for individuals to address, or temporarily escape from, their personal problems (Clary et al.). Volunteers commonly report that values, understanding and enhancement are the most important functions, whereas career, social and protective are the least important functions (Clary & Snyder, 1999).

Research on psychology of volunteerism
As Clary et al. (1998) developed the VFI, they conducted two series of studies. Their first set of studies focused on demonstrating the reliability and validity of the VFI. The functional approach to volunteerism is based on the assumption that the motivations linked to volunteering can be accurately identified and measured. Clary et al. have observed that previous measurements of volunteers' motivations have used implements that are not based on any psychological theories, and the reliability and validity of which are uncertain. Their first study thus addressed the need for an implement that reliably and validly measures volunteers' motivations. They tested the VFI by asking each member of a group of currently active volunteers to indicate how important the different motivations were to them. The findings from this research provided evidence that both supported the functional approach to volunteers' motivations, and demonstrated the reliability and validity of the VFI (Clary et al.). Clary et al. also acknowledged the importance of examining volunteers' motivations, and the VFI, in other populations. The participants in their first study were all active volunteers with an average age of 40.9 years. The researchers thus conducted a second study that used a sample of university students, some of which were volunteers and others were not. The results demonstrated the reliability and validity of the VFI in a population that has greater diversity in age and volunteering experiences (Clary et al.).

The second set of studies conducted by Clary et al. (1998) tested hypotheses related to each stage of the course of volunteering, these being volunteer recruitment, volunteers' satisfaction and volunteers' commitment. Their first study examined and supported a key aspect of the functional theory, this being the value of coupling an individual's motivations with opportunities offered by the environment. The functional theory proffers a symbolic interactionism prediction. This is that the efficacy of messages persuading people to volunteer depends on how closely they match the motivations of the recipients of the message (Clary et al.). The results of their second study supported another aspect of the functional theory: if volunteer work enables an individual to satisfy their motivational goals, satisfaction with their volunteer work will be markedly increased (Clary et al.). Finally, the researchers conducted a third study to test an extension of the functional theory: volunteers whose motives are satisfied would be more likely to remain volunteers, both in the short-term and long-term, than volunteers who did not have the chance to achieve their motivational goals. The study confirmed this extension (Clary et al.).

Conclusion
It is therefore clear that Clary and Snyder have widely researched the psychology of volunteerism. They have identified its fundamental theories, explained how they are relevant and demonstrated their relevance through valid experimental studies. Volunteerism is a significant form of prosocial behaviour that is worthy of further research (Clary et al., 1998).

References
Baumeister, R. F., & Bushman, B. J. (2008). Social Psychology and Human Nature. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth.

Blumer, H. (1986). Symbolic Interactionism: Perspective and Method. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

Clary, E. G., Snyder, M., Ridge, R. D., Copeland, J., Stukas, A. A., Haugen, J., & Miene, P. (1998). Understanding and assessing the motivations of volunteers: A functional approach. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1516-1530.

Clary, E. G. & Snyder, M. (1999). The motivations to volunteer: Theoretical and practical considerations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8, 156-159.

Stukas, A. A., Snyder, M., & Clary, E. G. (1999). The effects of "mandatory volunteerism" on intentions to volunteer. Psychological Science, 10, 59-64.

Appendix A: Self-assessment
For the theory component of assessment, I attempted to locate, understand and refer to relevant psychological theories throughout my blog, such as the functional theory. For the research component, I endeavoured to conduct a thorough search of the psychological literature. I made sure to check all of the leading psychology databases for relevant information, including Academic Search Premier, PsycINFO, Academic OneFile, Health Reference Center and PubMed Central. I used five references. I used this number of references, and not more, because the blog question asked me to refer to the work of two specific authors. I thus used the three most recent journal articles I could find; other articles by these authors tended to use similar information, and most of them were published more than a decade ago. For the written expression component, I achieved a Flesch-Kincaid Grade Level of 12.0, Flesch Reading Ease of 26.7 and 10% of the sentences were passive. Word count came to 1600 words. I included underlined subheadings in my blog to increase its reading ease, and aimed to follow the APA citation style.

For the online engagement component, I attempted to demonstrate a high level of engagement by including in my blog links to websites relating to volunteerism. I found and included one website that outlined the physical and emotional benefits of being a volunteer, and another website that listed inspirational quotes relating to volunteerism, many of which were made by well-known figures. I was also able to attract several meaningful comments to my blog. Finally, I attempted to improve from blog 1 by devoting time to reading other students' blogs and writing comments for them. I aimed to write at least ten different comments, which I have kept track of in my blog so that viewers can see which other blogs I wrote comments for.